With just one function - errors.New() - to create new error with given
text.

This will be soon used in Pyx/nogil context package to create context.canceled
and context.deadlineExceeded errors.

Pyx/nogil only for now.

- interface is analog of interface{} in Go.
- error is analog of error in Go.

For now the interfaces are implemented via classic C++ scheme via
inheritance and additional vtable field in pointed object.

In the future we might want to consider reworking that to Go-style
interfaces without predeclaring which interfaces a class implements.

Top-level documentation is TODO.

Interfaces will be soon needed to describe Context interface in C
context package.

- refptr==refptr  (e.g. to compare whether returned error object is
  something particular)
- adoptref() and newref()
- object (exposed as gobject not to be confused with builtin pyx
  "object" referring to python object)

All this will be soon used in C version of context package.

Briefly describe provided functionality instead of only referring to
https://golang.org/pkg/context and https://blog.golang.org/context.

Thinking a bit more after e82b4fab (libgolang: Objects refcounting
(initial draft)) and working on interfaces as part of context pyx -> C
move, I've came to conclusion that the better name for on-heap objects
managed by libgolang is just "object" without "ref" prefix.

-> Rename refobj -> object and amend its documentation correspondingly.

So that refptr<T> could be used as keys in e.g. dict (unordered_map) or
set (unordered_set). set<refptr> will soon be used by C version of
context package.

We already provide select for array and std::initializer_list. However
when cases are constructed at runtime dynamically both array and
initializer_list are not convenient to use.

-> Provide select() overload that accepts vector<_selcase>.

This functionality will soon be used in C version of context package.

- indicated that WorkGroup is not provided in Go version (amends
  40f3b90c "sync: Provide package documentation").
- fix typo in sync.pxd subject (amends 34b7a1f4 "golang: Expose Sema and
  Mutex as public Python and Cython/nogil API")

Every time tests are run under Python3 the following warnings are printed:

  golang/golang_test.py::test_func
    .../golang/golang_test.py:990: DeprecationWarning: inspect.getargspec() is deprecated since Python 3.0, use inspect.signature() or inspect.getfullargspec()
      assert inspect.formatargspec(*inspect.getargspec(MyClass.zzz)) == '(self, v, x=2, **kkkkwww)'

  golang/golang_test.py::test_func
    .../golang/golang_test.py:990: DeprecationWarning: `formatargspec` is deprecated since Python 3.5. Use `signature` and the `Signature` object directly
      assert inspect.formatargspec(*inspect.getargspec(MyClass.zzz)) == '(self, v, x=2, **kkkkwww)'

However since we are not going to drop Python2 support soon, and there is no
reffered "use-instead" functionality on Python2, let's simply silence the
warning for now.

It will be some extra work to define general equality when moving
context code into C. However that is unnecessary as usually a key is
specific to one particular package, and value associated with that key
is struct, or some other aggregate, that is holding all package-specific
context values.

Switching to compare keys by identity preserves that use-case while
making transition to C easier.

We always store just one key in there.
This will simplify transition to C.

This continues 2c8063f4 (*: Channels must be compared by ==, not by "is"
even for nilchan) and changes comparision of .done() for different
contexts from "is" to ==.

The reason is that soon we are going to move contexts into C, and this
way in context tree there potentially can be PyCtx -> CCtx -> PyCtx
chains, and while all those contexts could have the same C-level channel,
it would be difficult to propagate the knowledge that Python-level
pychan wrapper should be also exactly the same.

We already treat channel objects as pointers and require to compare them
by ==, so there should be no loss here. However to keep performance of
repeated

	select(
	    ctx.done(),
	    ...
	)

we continue to require that .done() for a particular python context
object returns exactly the same channel object every time.

Rearrange time C++ API so that e.g. time.Ticker is already
refptr<time._Ticker>. This way time users don't need to write refptr
all the time.

https://bitbucket.org/pypy/pypy/commits/251b47698e8e
https://bitbucket.org/pypy/pypy/issues/3096#comment-54707695

Which in turn fixes recover to clear current exception (see 9e6ff8bd
"golang: Fix recover to clear current exception") for context.

e.g. Context -> PyContext, with_cancel -> pywith_cancel, etc. This will
make the followup transition of context to pyx/nogil more clear.

As of 20191107 imp is present in Python 3.8 source tree and is _used_
there - see e.g.

    https://github.com/python/cpython/blob/v3.8.0-66-g7c20888e713/Lib/pkgutil.py#L188-L192

And they say imp will be there until at least Python 4 - see e.g.

    https://github.com/python/cpython/commit/e4f41deccf94

This fixes test_defer_excchain_dump failure under python3-dbg, where

E           Failed: not equal:
E           Differences (unified diff with -expected +actual):
E               @@ -1,4 +1,6 @@
E               +PYGOLANG/golang/_gopath.py:37: DeprecationWarning: the imp module is deprecated in favour of importlib; see the module's documentation for alternative uses
E               +  import imp

was added into traceback printed on stderr.

Fixes: bb9a94c3 (golang: Teach defer to chain exceptions (PEP 3134) even on Python2)

Provide time.Ticker, time.Timer and friends that can be used directly
from C++ and Pyx/nogil codes. Python-level classes become small wrapper
around pyx/nogil ones.

This is the first patch that moves to Pyx/nogil classes that are
dynamically allocated on heap. refptr<T> is used to automatically manage
lifetime of such objects. At Pyx level exposed API is very similar to
Python-one, while internally it uses refptr<T> and friends.

Refobj was just added in previous patch as the class that provides base
functionality for reference-counted objects.

Since we are going to move more pygolang functionality into C++ (timers,
context, ...), and since C++ does not have garbage collector, we will
need to find a way to automatically manage memory in leak/error free way.

Let's do this via refptr<T> smart pointer (inspired by WebKit's RefPtr<T>),
which, similarly to chan<T> automatically manages pointed object's
lifetime through reference counting.

refptr<T> will be used in follow-up patches.

Top-level documentation is TODO.

This will be needed in Python-wrappers for C-level code which exposes
channels. For example in time package whose implementation will soon be
moved to nogil world fully.

3121b290 (golang: Teach pychan to work with channels of C types, not
only PyObjects) added ability to convert pychan to chan[T], but
described that ability only briefly in README. Provide more details in
that description before we add description and implementation for
reflexive pychan <- chan[T] wrapping.

We already have some sync functionality implemented in C++ (e.g.
sync.Once, sync.WaitGroup) and we are going to add more and also move
timers implementation to C++. It is getting crowded for that
functionality to still live in libgolang.{h,cpp}

-> Split sync & time functionality into their own C++ packages (still
built-into libgolang.so)

Briefly describe provided functionality instead of only referring to
https://golang.org/pkg/time.

Briefly describe provided functionality instead of only referring to
https://golang.org/pkg/sync.

Make built extensions depend on golang/{sync,time}.pxd and rebuild if
those files change. A bit overkill to depend globally, but more correct,
since an extension that is using pygolang can be using those packages.

Before the patch - without those depends - since distutils does not
implement proper dependency tracking, extensions - even those that
actually depend on sync/time pxd, were not rebuilt.

sync.pxd was missed to be added in 34b7a1f4 (golang: Expose Sema and
Mutex as public Python and Cython/nogil API). time.pxd was missed to be
added in ce8152a2 (pyx api: Provide sleep).

Just cosmetics - easier to oversee the code.

Ticker: self -> pytx
Timer:  self -> pyt

e.g. tick -> pytick, Timer -> PyTimer. etc. This will make the followup
transition of time to pyx/nogil more clear.

e.g. go -> pygo, select -> pyselect, etc. This will make the followup
transition to non-py mode more clear.

Similarly to 0e838833 (time: Turn Ticker and Timer into cdef classes)
rework all classes in context package to be cdef classes:

- cdef their attributes (else accessing any of them raises
  AttributeError). But don't change any of them to be used in cimport
  mode yet - this will be done later as separate steps.

In preparation to start migrating, at least partially, context
functionality to nogil mode, first, similarly to package time (see
32f34607 "time: Move code to pyx"), move the code from context.py to
_context.pyx.

This is straight code movement + associated  setup.py & co adjusts.

We don't move just to context.pyx (note no _ prefix), since we will need
to continue distinguishing pyx/nogil from py objects/functions.

Gcc 5.4 from Ubuntu 16.04 LTS complains e.g.

    ./golang/libgolang.h: In function ‘golang::_selcase golang::_selrecv_(golang::_chan*, void*, bool*)’:
    ./golang/libgolang.h:227:5: sorry, unimplemented: non-trivial designated initializers not supported
         };
         ^

The problem started to appear after 47111d3e (libgolang: Teach select to accept
inplace tx data) when we moved _selcase.ptxrx inside union.

Let's add workaround for older compilers, even though e.g. gcc 8.3 from Debian
10 accepts existing code just fine.

Provide sync.WaitGroup that can be used directly from C++ and Pyx/nogil codes.
Python-level sync.WaitGroup becomes small wrapper around pyx/nogil one.

Python-level tests should be enough to cover C++/Pyx functionality at
zero-level approximation.

Provide sync.Once that can be used directly from C++ and Pyx/nogil worlds.
Python-level sync.Once becomes small wrapper around pyx/nogil sync.Once .

Libgolang, since 3b241983 (Port/move channels to C/C++/Pyx), already had
defer macro implemented and used, but only internally. The reason it was
not yet exposed as public API is that there is a difference with Go's
defer in that deferred function is called at end of current scope
instead of end of current function, and I was a bit reluctant to expose
defer with different-than-Go semantic.

However even with this difference defer is useful, and the difference
can be documented. Unfortunately it is not easy to correctly fix the
difference, so the most practical way for now is to expose defer as it is.

I've also contemplated how to avoid using macro, but without a macro,
users will have to explicitly declare placeholder variable for every
defer call which goes against usability.

Since defer is exposed as macro, I've also contemplated to expose it as
something like `libgolang_defer` with the idea to avoid name conflicts,
and so that users - that are using defer - will be doing `#define defer
libgolang_defer`. However I ended up not doing that and exposing `defer`
macro with its own name. My rationale is:

- grepping /usr/include/ for \<defer\> on my system did not showed any
  real usage.
- Qt also #defines `slots` and `signals` and that does not cause
  problems in practice.

-> expose `defer` macro into public C++ API as is, so that it can be
used not only inside libgolang.cpp . For example I myself need defer
functionality in C++ part of wendelin.core.

Else the exception, even if it was recovered from, will be included as
cause for next raised exception. See added test for details.

Python3 chains exceptions, so that e.g. if exc1 is raised and, while it
was not handled, another exc2 is raised, exc2 will be linked to exc1 via
exc2.__context__ attribute and exc1 will be included into exc2 traceback
printout. However many projects still use Python2 and there is no
similar chaining functionality there. This way exc1 is completely lost.

Since defer code is in our hands, we can teach it to implement exception
chaining even on Python2 by carefully analyzing what happens in
_GoFrame.__exit__().

Implementing chaining itself is relatively easy, but is only part of the
story. Even if an exception is chained with its cause, but exception
dump does not show the cause, the chaining will be practically useless.
With this in mind this patches settles not only on implementing chaining
itself, but on also giving a promise that chained cause exceptions will
be included into traceback dumps as well.

To realize this promise we adjust all exception dumping funcitons in
traceback module and carefully install adjusted
traceback.print_exception() into sys.excepthook. This amends python
interactive sessions and programs run by python interpreter to include
causes in exception dumps. "Careful" here means that we don't change
sys.excepthook if on golang module load we see that sys.excepthook was already
changed by some other module - e.g. due to IPython session running
because IPython installs its own sys.excepthook. In such cases we don't
install our sys.excepthook, but we also provide integration patches that
add exception chaining support for traceback dump functionality in
popular third-party software. The patches (currently for IPython and
Pytest) are activated automatically, but only when/if corresponding
software is imported and actually used. This should give practically
good implementation of the promise - a user can now rely on seeing
exception cause in traceback dump whatever way python programs are run.

The implementation takes https://pypi.org/project/pep3134/ experience
into account [1]. peak.utils.imports [2,3] is used to be notified when/if
third-party module is imported.

[1] https://github.com/9seconds/pep3134/
[2] https://pypi.org/project/Importing/
[3] http://peak.telecommunity.com/DevCenter/Importing

This patch originally started as hacky workaround in wendelin.core
because in wcfs tests I was frequently hitting situations, where
exception raised by an assert was hidden by another exception raised in
further generic teardown check. For example wcfs tests check that wcfs
is unmounted after every test run [4] and if that fails it was hiding
problems raised by an assert. As the result I was constantly guessing
and adding code like [5] to find what was actually breaking. At some
point I added hacky workaround for defer to print cause exception not to
loose it [6]. [7] has more context and background discussion on this topic.

[4] https://lab.nexedi.com/kirr/wendelin.core/blob/49e73a6d/wcfs/wcfs_test.py#L70
[5] https://lab.nexedi.com/kirr/wendelin.core/blob/49e73a6d/wcfs/wcfs_test.py#L853-857
[6] kirr/wendelin.core@c00d94c7
[7] nexedi/zodbtools!13 (comment 81553)

After this patch, on Python2

    defer(cleanup1)
    defer(cleanup2)
    defer(cleanup3)
    ...

is no longer just a syntatic sugar for

    try:
        try:
            try:
                ...
            finally:
                cleanup3()
        finally:
            cleanup2()
    finally:
        cleanup1()